|
“Which
way shall I
turn me?”: to drink
or not to drink [172] |
Alcohol is derived from the Arabic word al- kol’l which
means “a fine cosmetic powder made by pulverising iron ore and
worn as mascara”. In Sanskrit the word alcohol is
associated with madness or a type of temporary insanity.
Human beings have been experimenting with intoxicating substances since
time began. Dionysus and Bacchus, the Greek and Roman gods of wine, presided
over orgies and frenzies and it is written
in Genesis 9(20) that Noah planted a vineyard: “…and he drank
of the wine and became drunk, and lay uncovered in his tent”.
Alcoholism is one of the oldest universal problems known to humans [199].
The fellowship of Alcoholics Anonymous in Africa began with a small meeting
in Johannesburg in October 1946 and they celebrated their 21st anniversary
by launching a newsletter called Regmaker
which continues today.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
| 1. The first issue of “Regmaker”
[347] |
2. A copy of the letter from Carl Jung
to the co-founder of the AA
movement [347] |
3. Concerns in South Africa at a 1951
conference opened by Dr. Karl
Bremer, then Minister of Social Welfare [202] |
| 4. A definition accepted at the 1951 conference
[202] |
Despite the history and ubiquity of alcohol abuse, it is only recently
that alcoholism
has been recognised as a disease and treated accordingly. The concept
of inveterate drunkenness as a disease appears to be rooted in antiquity,
however, and the Roman philosopher Seneca classified it as a form of insanity.
[175]
|
An encyclopaedia
of
alcoholism [176] |
The term, alcoholism, however, appears first in the classical essay Alcoholismus
Chronicus written in 1849 by the Swedish physician Magnus Huss. Alcoholism
consists of a repetitive intake of alcohol to an extent that causes repeated
or continual harm to the drinker, which may be physical, mental, social
or economic. There is a clear statistical correlation between drinking
and:
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From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to
enlarge) |
| 1. A critical concern [182] |
2. Children on the street, often as a
result of
alcohol abuse at home.
Photographer: Mark Standley [182] |
There is a higher incidence of disease, divorce, death by suicide, homicide,
violence and motor accidents as well as greater incidences of spouse and
child abuse among heavy drinkers. [389]
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome and other alcohol related
birth defects [248]
[329] [330]
The effect that the alcoholic or problem drinker has on others may be
generational as with the spectrum of disorders which may be caused when
a woman consumes alcohol during pregnancy. Major among these disorders
is Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
There is evidence that habitual or even occasional drinking by pregnant
women can endanger the health of the foetus and result in any number of
abnormalities or sometimes death soon after birth as the foetus lacks
oxygen.
|
Brain size
in a normal child on the left and a child
born with Foetal Alcohol Syndrome on the right.
[250] |
Studies have found that the foetuses brains are poorly developed and
that damage occurs over a wide continuum. Damage varies due to volume
ingested, timing during pregnancy, peak blood alcohol levels, genetics
and environmental factors.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
1. Frances Fortuin
(Photographer: Dale Yudelman) [331] |
| 2. The turning point for Frances [331] |
The Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces have been reported as having
the highest incidence of FAS world-wide, largely attributed to the legacy
of the “dop system” and other
socio-economic conditions.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
| 1. A lighthearted look at a serious problem
[184] |
| 2. Am I my brother’s keeper? [184] |
3. You may be “keeping” more
than one drunk
friend by confiscating his car keys [184] |
Alcohol and driving [343]
[188]
The motor car is one of the most lethal weapons in our hands today. In
South Africa more
than 10,000 people die annually on our roads with alcohol being identified
as one of the main causes of traffic accidents worldwide. According to
the Directorate of Traffic Safety (1998: 10-5) South Africa’s accident
rate is as much as 5 to 10 times that of other countries, and more than
50% of all fatal road accidents in South Africa are due to drunk driving
[335]. An article
on drinking and driving in Acta criminologica in 2001 [336]
notes that even moderate levels of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) interfere
with a driver’s judgement, with self-awareness diminishing and logical
thinking becoming difficult. The article states:
“When the BAC reaches 0,05% to 0,08 % the person’s motor co-ordination
is affected resulting in an unsteady gait, perception is affected and
drowsiness becomes apparent. In addition, there are mood changes, the
ability to concentrate diminishes and irresponsible behaviour, such as
the insistence to drive, occurs.” [336:
p.123]
Further to this it is estimated that 75% of the adult pedestrians killed
in road accidents have alcohol levels in excess of the legal limit.[188]
|
Alcohol often
stands in
the way of the paramedic
trying to help a victim
[343] |
Alcohol and trauma
Alcohol plays a key role in physical injury trauma particularly with injuries
arising from violence and traffic accidents. Alcohol is also a major cause
of male aggression [339]
and plays a pivotal role in violence between intimate partners. [343]
[333] According
to a Cape Metropolitan Study [343]
conducted in 2000, 64% of injuries from violence were judged to be alcohol-related
while 76% of the deaths were proven to be so. Mishaps around the home
and during recreation are also shown to be alcohol-related and occupational
safety is affected. It has also been shown that alcohol complicates both
the initial assessment and the subsequent care of trauma patients as drunkenness
makes it difficult to obtain adequate patient histories and patients tend
to be uncooperative and also to suffer withdrawal symptoms.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
| 1. The alcohol crime link of concern in
1920 [382] |
2. One of the remedies suggested: keep
the
libraries open at night [382] |
Alcohol and crime
According to an article by Charles Parry of the MRC the link between crime
and alcohol is an international phenomenon. Parry recommends that because
of the existence of an alcohol-crime axis, alcohol control should be seen
as a crime prevention issue. [340]
It is thought that crime and substance abuse may have many of the same
causes. Research also suggests a relationship between both crime and suicide.
For example, in a study at the Salt River mortuary in 1998, approximately
55% of non-natural deaths in Cape Town had blood alcohol concentrations
greater than or equal to 0.08g/100ml, with the highest levels being found
in homicide victims and transport related deaths. [340]
Furthermore, a research study pertaining to the nature, extent and development
of crime undertaken by the Department of Correctional services together
with the Human Sciences Research Council and a number of other role players
found that rape was statistically and significantly associated with drinking.
[333]
|
An early conference
held in the very heart
of the wineland
[190] [191] |
COUNTERING THE ABUSE OF ALCOHOL
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
| 1. The first person to use the term “teetotal”
[172] |
| 2. The church in action [383] |
The Temperance Movement
The temperance movement consists of organisations dedicated to promoting
moderation and, more often, complete abstinence in the use of intoxicating
liquor. Although an abstinence pledge was introduced by churches as far
back as 1800, the earliest temperance organisations appear to have been
those founded at Saratoga, New York in 1808 and in Massachusetts in 1813.
The earliest European organisations were formed in Ireland in 1829 and
thereafter spread to Scotland and Britain, while on the continent Norway
and Sweden appear to have led the way in the mid 1830’s.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
| 1. Victorian England [171]
|
2. Thrilling experiences in fighting the
liquor traffic
[384] |
| 3. The trial of alcohol [384] |
Temperance and abstinence became the objects of education and legislation,
for example when prohibition was enacted by Constitutional amendment in
1919 in the US and only repealed in 1933.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
1. Pamphlet from the Communist Party of
South
Africa [183] |
| 2. The “dop” or “tot”
system [183] |
| 3. The root of all evil [183] |
Besides combining moral and political action, the modern temperance
movements were characterised by international scope and the organised
co-operation of women.
The Women’s Christian Temperance Union of the Cape Colony / Province
was founded in 1889 as an offshoot of the National Women’s Christian
Temperance Union founded in the United States in 1874.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
1. A history of the Women’s Christian
Temperance Union (WCTU) in
South Africa [170] |
| 2. Temperance tempered with the rise of
feminism [173] |
| 3. An excellent overview of the movement
[173] |
| 4. Raisin Week [172] |
Prominent Cape women formed the leadership with rank and file members
coming from all classes and cultural backgrounds. Dedicating itself to
Christian evangelism and prohibiting the use of alcohol, it made significant
gains.
But its true value lay in its recognition of the fact that to achieve
these goals women had to be empowered by way of gender equality and the
female franchise.
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| From left to right: (Click on a thumbnail
to enlarge) |
| 1. The first issue of the “White
Ribbon” [204]
|
| 2. Report from the Franchhise Department
in the “White Ribbon” in May 1914 [204] |
Association for Responsible Alcohol Use
In 1996, the Industry Association
for Responsible Alcohol Use (ARA)
was established by the major producers of alcohol beverages in South Africa
to co-ordinate and direct activities which counter and reduce the abuse
of their products The stated mission of the ARA is:
“To promote the
responsible use of beverage alcohol, as part of a healthy lifestyle, among
those who have already taken the decision to consume beverage alcohol.”
Alcohol advertising
The ARA currently has a voluntary advertising code stipulating requirements
with which liquor advertisements, packaging and promotions have to comply.
The Star of 20 January 2003 [437]
reported that the Department of Health and the Central Drug Authority
had decided to implement steps to regulate alcohol advertising, in much
the same way as tobacco advertising has been restricted in South Africa.
It was noted in this article that the South African Health Minister, Dr
Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, intended to go ahead with “the long anticipated
regulations requiring mandatory health warnings to appear on the labels
of containers of alcoholic drinks”.
Riette Rust’s article in Wineland
[327] notes that
the Central Drug Authority of South Africa currently recommends the following
with regard to alcohol advertising:
- warning labels should appear on liquor bottles
- broadcasting of liquor commercials should be prohibited between 06:00
and 22:00
- the public should be informed about the dangers of alcohol
- limitations on sport sponsorships should be considered.
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